Radiative transfer calculations in numerical weather prediction (NWP)
and climate models require reliable information about aerosol
concentration in the atmosphere, combined with data on aerosol optical
properties. Replacement of the default input data on vertically
integrated climatological aerosol optical depth at 550 nm (AOD550,
Tegen climatology) with newer data, based on those available from
Copernicus atmosphere monitoring service (CAMS), led to minor
differences in the simulated solar irradiance and screen-level
temperature in the regional climate model HCLIM-ALARO simulations over
Scandinavia and in a clear-sky case study using HARMONIE-AROME NWP
model over the Iberian peninsula. In the case study, replacement of
the climatological AOD550 with that based on three-dimensional
near-real-time aerosol mass mixing ratio resulted in a maximum
reduction of the order of 150 W m-2 in the simulated local solar
irradiance at noon. Corresponding maximum reduction of the
screen-level temperature by almost two degrees was found. The large
differences were due to a dust intrusion from Sahara, which is
obviously not represented in the average climatological distribution
of dust aerosol. Further studies are needed in order to introdude
updated aerosol optical properties of all available aerosol types at
different wavelengths, make them available for the radiation schemes
of ALADIN-HIRLAM and test the impact on the predicted radiation
fluxes.
Introduction
Numerical weather prediction (NWP) and climate models forecast
shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) radiative fluxes in the atmosphere
and at the surface level. Atmospheric radiative transfer depends on
the mixing ratios and optical properties of gases, clouds and aerosol
particles. The importance of accounting for the radiative effect of
aerosols in the NWP models has been documented in a multitude of
recent articles, see for example and references therein. The required complexity of
aerosol treatment in NWP models was recently discussed by
.
Climatological fields of vertically integrated aerosol optical depth (AOD), based on , prescribed vertical
distribution of AOD, based on and inherent
optical properties (IOPs) derived by have been
used for parametrizations of aerosol radiative transfer in NWP and
climate models (e.g. ). However, the aerosol concentration in air can
differ significantly from the climatological mean values when
large amount of dust comes from a desert, large-scale forest
fires occur, or a volcanic eruption injects ash high into the
atmosphere. The impact of increased aerosol load on the radiative
transfer may then increase significantly. In such cases, use of
real-time aerosol data would be beneficial. On the other hand, climate
simulations can still benefit from improved aerosol climatologies
(e.g. ).
Updated aerosol climatologies have resulted from reanalysis projects
like Monitoring Atmospheric Composition and Climate (MACC,
). Recently, new sources of global
satellite-based near-real-time data and updated climatology on aerosol
distribution have become available via the Copernicus Atmosphere
Monitoring Service (CAMS, ). These data are produced
by an advanced atmospheric chemical transport model, capable of
forecasting the three-dimensional concentration of aerosol species,
constrained by the assimilation of satellite-derived aerosol data
. Their usage opens new possibilities and
poses new requirements for radiation and cloud microphysics
parametrizations in both NWP and climate models.
In this study, we focus on renewal of the climatological and
near-real-time aerosol input data for the radiation parametrizations
within the Aire Limitée Adaptation Dynamique Développement
International High-Resolution Limited Area Model (ALADIN-HIRLAM)
forecast system. We summarise the status of aerosol usage in the
radiation parametrizations in both the NWP (HARMONIE-AROME) and
regional climate (HCLIM) model configurations of the system and report
results of the first sensitivity experiments. At the first step of the
ongoing work reported here, we have imported AOD550 fields for 11 tropospheric aerosol species and combined them into existing 4 aerosol
categories, retaining the present simplified way to handle aerosol
optical properties.
The rest of this article is outlined as
follows. Section summarises the present usage of
aerosol information in the ALADIN-HIRLAM
system. Section describes the suggested renewal of
AOD550 climatology and use of near-real-time aerosol
concentration. Section presents results of some
climate and NWP model experiments. Conclusions and outlook in
Sect. finish the study.
Aerosols in the ALADIN-HIRLAM forecasting system
Our aerosol studies were performed in specific NWP and climate model
configurations of the ALADIN-HIRLAM forecasting system. For reference,
Table gives a glossary of the NWP and climate model
configurations within the system. Details of our numerical experiments
will be described in Sect. .
Glossary of the ALADIN-HIRLAM system.
AcronymFull namePurposeNoteALADIN-HIRLAMLimited area nonhydrostatic NWP systemALADINAire Limitée AdaptationLimited area NWP model and consortiumSince 1990Dynamique Développement InternationalHIRLAMHigh Resolution Limited Area ModelLimited area NWP model and consortiumSince 1985AROMEApplication of ResearchNWP configuration of ALADINto Operations at MesoscaleALAROALadin-AROmeNWP configuration of ALADINSince 2012HARMONIEHIRLAM ALADIN ResearchConfiguration within ALADIN-HIRLAMfor Mesoscale NWP in EuropeHARMONIE-AROMEAROME configuration within HARMONIEHCLIMHARMONIE ClimateRegional climate model configurationwithin HARMONIEHCLIM-ALAROHCLIM with physical parametrizationsfrom ALARO
ALADIN-HIRLAM numerical weather prediction system
includes parametrizations of the direct
radiation effect due to aerosol absorption and scattering in the
shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) parts of the spectrum. HARMONIE-AROME
configuration of the system applies by
default an early version (cy25 from the year 2002, documented in
) of the Integrated Forecasting System (IFS)
radiation scheme from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather
Forecasts (ECMWF). The regional climate model configuration
HCLIM-ALARO uses by default the ALADIN
radiation scheme, ACRANEB2 . In
all configurations of the ALADIN-HIRLAM system, the same aerosol
climatology is currently used as input to the radiation schemes. Only
the direct radiative effect due to aerosols is accounted for.
By default, monthly climatological maps of the vertically integrated
aerosol optical depth (AOD) at the wavelength of 550 nm (AOD550) for
land (organic carbon), sea (sea salt), urban (black carbon) and desert
(dust) particles, based on are applied. The
gridded global source data are given with 2.5∘ resolution. In
addition, uniformly distributed background AOD550 values for the
stratospheric volcanic ashes (0.007) and sulphate (0.045) as well as
for the tropospheric particles (land or organic aerosol type, 0.03)
are assumed (see ). The vertical distribution of
AOD550 is obtained by using prescribed exponential functions for each
species following .
The wavelength-dependent aerosol inherent optical properties (IOP) are
assumed constant in time and space and prescribed, ignoring possible
humidity dependencies. The IOPs include the spectral dependence of
AOD, single scattering albedo (SSA) and asymmetry factor (g). Three-dimensional AOD fields are created for each wavelength and
aerosol type. They enter the radiation schemes during the model
time-integration together with SSA and g. By default, 6 SW and 6 LW
wavelengths for 6 aerosol species are accounted for. ACRANEB2 is a
single-band scheme with only one SW and one LW spectral interval. For
this scheme, the aerosol optical properties are remapped to the SW and
LW bands by applying weighted spectral averaging.
Renewal of the aerosol input dataClimatological aerosol optical depth
Vertically integrated monthly climatology of the tropospheric mass mixing ratio (MMR) and prescribed mass extinction coefficient (ME)
, based on Copernicus
Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) reanalysis over the years 2003–2011, were obtained from ECMWF (Alessio Bozzo, personal
communication). Vertically integrated (total column) MMRs of 11 aerosol species, shown in Table , are represented in
a global latitude–longitude grid of 2.5∘ resolution. It was
combined with ME at 550 nm (ME550) to obtain AOD550 as AOD550 = ME550 × MMR for each of the 11 species. As a first approximation, the
11 AOD550 fields were combined into the 4 categories of Tegen's AOD550
(land, sea, urban, desert). In this combination, sea salt and dust
size bins were summed up, organic carbon was classified as land
aerosol and black carbon as urban. Sulphates were divided
half-and-half to the land and urban classes. The humidity-dependencies
of the hygroscopic aerosols were roughly approximated by assuming a
constant relative humidity of 0.8 for land aerosol and 0.95 for sea
aerosol. The resulting data set is further denoted by CAMSAOD
climatology, and was applied with the default vertical distribution
functions and the assumed AOD550 background values.
CAMS aerosol species.
NameDescriptionSize range(µm)01 SS1Sea Salt size10.03–0.502 SS2Sea Salt size20.5–503 SS3Sea Salt size35–2004 DD1Dust size10.03–0.5505 DD2Dust size20.55–0.906 DD3Dust size30.9–2007 OM1Hydrophobic organic matter(0.02–0.2)08 OM2Hydrophilic organic matter(0.02—0.2)09 BC1Hydrophobic black carbon(0.005–0.5)10 BC2Hydrophilic black carbon(0.005–0.5)11 SU1Tropospheric sulphate(0.005–20)
Size estimates in parentheses are not used in definition
of the CAMS aerosol categories but given here for information only.
Near-real-time aerosol mass mixing ratio
In order to test the impact of the near-real-time (the n.r.t.) aerosol
concentration on the radiative transfer, three-dimensional MMR fields
from the CAMS forecast were introduced to HARMONIE-AROME simulations
via the initial conditions and horizontal boundaries. The same 11 species that were used for preparation of the CAMSAOD climatology
(Table ) were included. The CAMS global data has
horizontal resolution of ca. 40 km and 60 levels in vertical, the
data are available with 3 h intervals from two daily
analysis-forecast cycles. In HARMONIE-AROME, the advection of the
aerosol MMRs was treated by the equations of the atmospheric dynamics
but no aerosol sedimentation process was parametrized. Thus, aerosol
sinks were not considered but the MMRs, which were imported from the
CAMS forecast at the initial time of each HARMONIE-AROME forecast,
were only transported during the model run. Davies relaxation was
imposed to both meteorological and MMR fields in the boundary zone.
The n.r.t. AOD550 at every level and grid-point was calculated by
applying the climatological ME550 values to the n.r.t. MMR
fields. Thus, the prescribed vertical distribution functions were not
needed, but the values for 11 aerosol species were combined into the 4 Tegen species. The background values of tropospheric and stratospheric
aerosol were still added and the prescribed wavelength-dependent
aerosol IOPs were applied in the same way as for CAMSAOD.
In the following, this 3-D data set is referred to as CAMSNRT.
Inherent optical properties
showed in a single-column HARMONIE-AROME
study that the SW radiative transfer could be simulated realistically
only when both AOD550 and the IOP values were realistic. Available
CAMS aerosol data comprise prescribed IOPs for 14 SW and 16 LW
spectral intervals between 0.2 and 1000 µm. For the hygroscopic
aerosols, IOPs' dependence on atmospheric relative humidity is
prescribed. Renewal of the IOPs is ongoing for HARMONIE-AROME, but in
the present climate and NWP experiments the default IOPs for 6 aerosol
classes and 6 SW and 6 LW spectral intervals without humidity
dependency were still used (Sect. ).
Monthly mean SWDS (W m-2) for 2012–2015, April:
Tegen (a), CAMSAOD (b) and the difference CAMSAOD-Tegen (c).
Numerical experimentsHCLIM-ALARO experiment with renewed AOD climatology
A HARMONIE climate (HCLIM, ) experiment was
run over a Nordic domain for the period of July 2011–December 2015
(results were analysed for 2013–2015) to study the impact of the
aerosol climatology update. Simulations, based on the version
HCLIM38h1, rev. 15455, were run in hydrostatic mode with ALARO physical
parametrizations, which include the ACRANEB2 radiation scheme. The
horizontal resolution of ca. 12.5 km and 65 levels in vertical was
used, and the lateral boundary forcing was obtained from ERA-Interim
reanalysis. The experiment was run in climate mode,
i.e. in successive one-month-long cycles, that read the restart
information from the previous month results. Two simulations with
different monthly AOD550 climatologies – the default Tegen and the
simplified CAMSAOD described above – were compared.
Figure shows an example of monthly mean SW
irradiance at the surface (SWDS) over the years 2013–2015 for the
month of April, when the largest impacts were found. The maximum
difference due to the use of different AOD550 data was
ca. 10 W m-2 over the Baltic sea. This value was also the maximum
over all monthly averages. Tegen and CAMSAOD data differ in the Nordic
area mainly with respect to the categories of land and sea
aerosol. The maximum values of land aerosol AOD550 are an order of
magnitude larger according to the default Tegen climatology than
according to CAMSAOD, while for the sea aerosol the opposite is true
(not shown). Note that here the CAMSAOD land aerosol was assumed to
represent all organic and half of the sulphate AOD550.
Screen-level temperature and precipitation by both simulations were
compared to E-OBS V14 daily gridded observation data
for the years 2013–2015. In this comparison, both
simulations show very similar results. For example in April, a mean
bias of T2m was -0.68 K for Tegen and -0.61 K for CAMSAOD, with quite similar geographic distribution of the bias over the Nordic domain.
HARMONIE-AROME using n.r.t. CAMS MMR
Starting from the 19th of February 2017 a dust intrusion from the
Sahara affected the south of the Iberian peninsula during 7 days. A
HARMONIE-AROME (cy40h1.1) experiment using CAMSNRT data was set up
over the Iberian domain (shown in Figs.
and ) for 19–22 February 2017. Eight forecasts per day,
each with forecast length of up to 24 h, were run with horizontal
resolution of 2.5 km and 65 levels in vertical. Horizontal boundary
data were obtained from IFS forecasts (of 9 km horizontal and
137-level vertical resolution) for the meteorological fields and from
CAMS forecast (of 40 km horizontal and 60-level vertical resolution)
for the aerosol fields with an interval of 3 h. Aerosol MMR
fields from CAMS forecast were introduced in the initial conditions
and advected by the dynamics of the model
(Sect. ). A technical difficulty is that the
spatial and temporal resolution of the IFS model is higher than that
of the CAMS forecasts. The problem was solved by interpolating all
boundary fields to the HARMONIE-AROME grid and blending the
meteorological and aerosol input. Interpolations were done linearly,
using the standard way of handling the lateral boundary data in
HARMONIE-AROME.
Dust AOD550 (dimensionless) at 12:00 UTC on 21 February 2017, based on CAMS 12 h forecast (a), CAMSAOD climatology in February (b) and the default Tegen climatology in
February (c). The colour scale is given on the left column.
24 h average global radiation (W m-2) from 24 h forecasts starting 00:00 UTC on 21 February 2017: CAMSNRT (a) and Tegen (b) experiments (upper colour scale) and their difference (c, lower colour scale). Locations of Badajoz and Madrid are marked with red dots.
The vertically integrated dust AOD550 at 12:00 UTC on 21 February 2017, given by the CAMS 12 h forecast that was initiated
at 00:00 UTC (Fig. a), is compared to the suggested
simplified CAMS climatology in February (Figure b)
and to the default Tegen (Figure c) climatology. The
maximum real-time values in the southeastern corner of the domain
(over Sahara) were an order of magnitude greater (1.0) than the
default climatological values (0.1). The dust covering the south of
the Iberian peninsula is clearly seen. Here, the maximum AOD550 values
from the n.r.t. data are about 0.4, from the simplified CAMS
climatology about 0.04 and from the default Tegen climatology about 0.01.
Figure shows the difference of the 24 h
average global irradiance at the surface, based on the 24 h
CAMSNRT and Tegen forecasts which were started at 00:00 UTC on 21 February 2017. Negative values shown in blue in
Fig. c over the dust-covered area indicate a
reduction in the average global radiation. The maximum reduction of
the clear-sky flux from the default Tegen experiment
(Fig. b) to the CAMS n.r.t. experiment
(Fig. a) was -154 W m-2, i.e. 60 % of the
maximum average global irradiance of the default. The domain-averaged
irradiance decreased from 147 W m-2 of the Tegen experiment to
129 W m-2 of the n.r.t experiment. (The maximum increase of
166 W m-2 shown in red in Fig. c was due to
the different position of clouds close to the African west coast.)
Reduction of the area-averaged global irradiance related to the use of
simplified CAMS climatology instead of the default Tegen climatology
was only -3 W m-2 (not shown). The small impact is understandable
because the difference in AOD550 between the n.r.t. and climatological
values was much larger than the difference between the two
climatologies.
Over the south of Spain and over Sahara there were almost no clouds
during 20 and 21 February 2017, hence here the reduction of the surface
shortwave radiation was due to the dust in the atmosphere. The
simulated global radiation was compared with the radiation
observations at several stations in the south of Spain.
Figure shows timeseries of the 1 h average
global irradiance during four days measured at the station of Badajoz,
compared to the forecast flux by CAMSNRT and Tegen experiments,
extracted from the 24 h simulations started at 00:00 UTC each day. The
CAMSNRT experiment agreed with the observations better than the
default Tegen experiment.
One-hour average global radiation (W m-2) for Badajoz station from 19 until 22 February: the default Tegen experiment (red), CAMSNRT experiment (green) and observations (dashed blue).
Screen-level temperature was also influenced.
Figure shows T2m time-series measured at an automatic station in Talavera la Real near Badajoz, compared to the
forecasts by the two experiments. The reduction of the temperature
around noon is clearly due to the dust intrusion. CAMSNRT experiment
results agree very well with the observation especially in the middle
of day. Similar agreement was found also at other stations (not shown).
Conclusions and outlook
Aerosol optical depth (AOD) data used for radiative transfer
parametrizations was renewed in the ALADIN-HIRLAM forecast
system. Sensitivity experiments with the climate model version
(HCLIM-ALARO) and the NWP version (HARMONIE-AROME) showed differences
in the downwelling shortwave radiation at the surface level and in the
surface temperature. As expected, the differences due to update of the
AOD550 climatology were small in the climate experiment run over a
Nordic domain for 3 years. A significantly larger difference was found
when the n.r.t. 3-D aerosol mass mixing ratio from Copernicus
Atmospheric Monitoring Service was introduced and used to replace the
climatological AOD in a case study during Saharan dust intrusion to
Iberian peninsula. Results obtained by using the n.r.t. data led to
radiation fluxes and screen-level temperatures that were closer to
observations than those obtained by using the default aerosol climatology.
As for Fig. but for the screen-level temperature at the automatic station Talavera la Real, Badajoz.
In order to fully benefit from the existing CAMS aerosol data it is
necessary improve the treatment of the aerosol optical properties in
the ALADIN-HIRLAM system. In the present experiments, simplifications
concerning the aerosol inherent optical properties (IOP) were
retained. The next step is to renew the prescribed values of the
spectral dependence of AOD, single scattering albedo and asymmetry
factor so that the wavelength and humidity dependencies will be taken
into account in more detail for all available aerosol species. This
will make the ad-hoc remapping of the eleven CAMS tropospheric
aerosol classes to the four classes of the present Tegen climatology
unnecessary and also allow the full use of the near-real-time aerosol
mass mixing ratio data for radiative transfer
calculations. Implementation of the updated optical properties to the
available radiation schemes will then allow testing of the impact of
varying aerosol concentrations and optical properties to the predicted
radiation fluxes both in the weather forecast and climate applications
of ALADIN-HIRLAM forecast system.
Historically, in NWP models the radiation and cloud microphysics have
been treated separately, which may even have led to inconsistencies in
treatment of cloud-radiation interactions. Usage of 3-D n.r.t. aerosol
mass mixing ratio, obtained via the boundary and initial fields from
the CAMS aerosol forecast, offers a possibility to unify the treatment
of aerosols in the radiation and cloud microphysics parametrizations.
Data availability
Results of the numerical experiments and AEMET observations used for validation are available from the authors upon request. CAMS AOD data for the near-real-time experiment are available via their service https://www.copernicus.eu/en/services/atmosphere (last access: 5 July 2019). CAMS aerosol climatology from ECMWF can be requested from the authors.
Author contributions
JPP prepared, run and described the climate experiment, DM prepared, run and described the Iberian case study and LR composed the text based on input from all authors.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Special issue statement
This article is part of the special issue “18th EMS Annual Meeting: European Conference for Applied Meteorology and Climatology 2018”. It is a result of the EMS Annual Meeting: European Conference for Applied Meteorology and Climatology 2018, Budapest, Hungary, 3–7 September 2018.
Acknowledgements
Our thanks are due to Alessio Bozzo (ECMWF) for advice and
climatological CAMS data on aerosol concentration and optical
properties. We thank Velle Toll for the pioneering work in
introduction of CAMS AOD data to HIRLAM-ALADIN system. The support
of the International HIRLAM-C and ALADIN programmes is
acknowledged. We acknowledge the E-OBS dataset from the EU-FP6
project UERRA (http://www.uerra.eu, last access: 1 June 2019) and the Copernicus Climate
Change Service, and the data providers in the ECA & D project
(https://www.ecad.eu, last access: 1 June 2019). We thank two anonymous reviewers whose
suggestions helped to improve the contents and presentation of the
manuscript.
Review statement
This paper was edited by Emily Gleeson and reviewed by two anonymous referees.
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